Rare Earth Elements Explained: What They Are, Why They Matter, and Where They’re Found

Rare earth metals are the metallic form of rare earth elements (REEs), a group of critical materials essential to modern technology. These metals are widely used in electronics, clean energy technologies, renewable energy systems, advanced manufacturing, and lighting applications. From electric vehicle batteries to wind turbine generators and smartphones, rare earth metals play a key role in powering high-tech industries and supporting the global shift toward sustainable energy.

Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of 17 chemically similar metallic elements found in the Earth’s crust. They include 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium. Their unique electronic structures give them special magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties, making them indispensable for applications such as electric motors, semiconductors, fiber optics, defense technologies, and clean energy innovation.

There are 17 rare earth elements in total. They are cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, eponymous lanthanum, scandium, and yttrium.

Rare earth elements are characterized by having an inert gas core plus three main valence electrons and any number of “f-orbital” electrons. This category includes scandium, yttrium, and the 15 lanthanides on the periodic table (from lanthanum to lutetium). Although chemically similar to the actinides (actinium to nobelium), the actinides—such as thorium, uranium, and plutonium—are not considered rare earths.

Rare earth minerals are naturally occurring minerals that contain significant concentrations of rare earth elements, typically more than 20%. The most important rare earth ores include bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime.

Rare earth minerals are found all over the world, but are concentrated mainly in China, with notable deposits also in the United States, India, Australia, Brazil, Russia, Vietnam, and Myanmar.

Yes. The U.S. contains several deposits of rare earth metals, including Mountain Pass in Southern California, historically one of the world’s most productive rare earth mines. Florida’s phosphate deposits also contain rare earths, but extraction is complicated by radioactive actinides that trigger Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulation.

China holds the world's largest reserves and dominates the global production and refining of rare earths. Interestingly, much of its output comes as a byproduct of iron mining.

The highest concentrations of rare earths are found in carbonatites (like bastnäsite), phosphates (like monazite), and bauxite, the primary source of aluminum.

Rare earth minerals are natural ores composed of oxides, phosphates, carbonates, or fluorocarbonates that contain the metals. To obtain the pure metals, the minerals must be concentrated, refined, and chemically reduced—a process that is complex, expensive, and often environmentally challenging.

They are not actually rare in abundance, but economically viable deposits are uncommon, and the extraction and separation processes are costly and environmentally intensive. Typical rare earth ores contain only 0.5–6% rare earth metals, compared to 25–65% metal content in more common ores like aluminum or iron.

No—they are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust but difficult and expensive to extract and refine. The most abundant, cerium, is comparable in abundance to nickel, zinc, and copper; the least abundant rare earths are comparable to molybdenum and iodine.

The process involves mining, mineral processing, concentrating, separation, and chemical reduction into individual oxides and metals. Stages beyond concentration are energy intensive and often environmentally unfriendly.

Typically, solvent extraction is used to separate mixed oxides into individual rare earth compounds after reduction.

Two main types—samarium-cobalt (Sm-Co) and neodymium-iron-boron (Nd-Fe-B)—are produced primarily through powder metallurgy, mixing metallic elements and forming sintered magnets with extremely strong magnetic properties.

They have exceptional magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties, making them essential for high-tech and clean energy technologies such as smartphones, electric vehicles, LED lighting, and wind turbines.

They are crucial for electric motors, wind turbine generators, and energy storage systems. Rare earth magnets—especially those containing neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, and terbium—enable efficient power generation and lightweight, high-performance designs. Rare earths like yttrium, europium, and terbium are also key to energy-efficient LED lighting.

Their partially filled f-orbitals result in unique electronic, magnetic, and luminescent behavior unmatched by other elements. Some, like scandium, are extremely valuable (over $3,500 per kilogram).

They are used in electric motors and generators; permanent magnets; batteries and energy storage; LEDs, lasers, and display phosphors; and catalysts for petroleum and chemical processing, metal alloys and glass polishing.

Industries that use rare earth metals include clean energy, electronics, automotive, defense, telecommunications, and petroleum refining. These industries rely on rare earth elements for applications such as wind turbines, electric vehicle batteries, smartphones, semiconductors, radar systems, and petroleum refining catalysts. Because they are essential to so many sectors, rare earth metals are considered critical to modern technology and energy innovation.

Rare earth magnets are used in direct-drive electric motors, wind turbines, audio equipment, MRI machines, magnetic levitation systems, and even magnetic name tags.

Rare earth metals are essential components in many of the technologies we use every day. Common examples include smartphones, electric and hybrid cars, fluorescent and LED lighting, computers, and household appliances—all rely on rare earth materials.

Rare earths are found in smartphone speakers, buzzers, vibration motors, and screen phosphors.

Current rare earth extraction methods are largely unsustainable due to their high environmental and economic costs. Mining and processing rare earth elements often lead to toxic chemical waste, soil and water contamination, and significant energy use—not to mention the human and ecological impact on local mining communities.

Refining rare earth materials is a complex and resource-intensive process due to several key challenges: Low ore concentrations, where large amounts of material must be processed to extract even small quantities of usable rare earth elements (REEs); complex separation processes due to chemical similarities requiring specialized techniques; and environmental hazards from toxic chemicals and hazardous waste that can lead to soil and water contamination. These challenges increase cost and time while contributing to geopolitical and environmental concerns.

Refining rare earth materials is a complex and resource-intensive process due to several key challenges:

• Low ore concentrations, meaning rare earth elements (REEs) are typically found in low concentrations within ores, requiring large amounts of material must be processed to extract even small quantities of usable REEs.
• Complex separation processes make rare earth elements difficult to separate and purify due to chemical similarities. Specialized techniques—such as solvent extraction, ion exchange, and high-temperature processing—are required, which increase time and cost.
• Environmental hazards occur as the refining process often involves toxic chemicals and generates hazardous waste. Without proper handling and treatment, this can lead to soil and water contamination from radioactive byproducts or acidic runoff.

These challenges not only increase the cost and time required to produce refined rare earth materials, but they also contribute to geopolitical and environmental concerns, particularly in countries heavily involved in mining and refining.

Analytical methods include X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA), quantitative evaluation of minerals by scanning electron microscopy (QEMSEM), and wet chemical analysis.

Supply is concentrated in a few countries—primarily China—creating vulnerabilities and potential bottlenecks for industries worldwide.

One of the biggest geopolitical concerns with rare earth elements is China’s dominance over the global supply chain. China controls the majority of rare earth mining and an even larger share of refining and processing, which gives the country the power to set prices, restrict exports, and influence global availability. This control creates national security, economic, and trade vulnerabilities for the U.S. and other countries that rely on rare earth materials for clean energy technology, smartphones, electric vehicles, and military defense systems.

The supply risks for rare earth metals are significant due to their concentrated production and rising global demand. Key risks include geopolitical tensions from reliance on limited suppliers; export restrictions from trade disputes or quotas; environmental regulations that can reduce production; and supply chain disruptions from natural disasters, pandemics, or transportation issues. Because rare earth metals are vital for clean energy, electronics, defense, and other critical industries, any disruption in supply can impact manufacturing, slow renewable energy growth, and pose risks to national security.

Rare earth metals are at the center of some of today’s most pressing scientific, economic, and global challenges. From powering electric vehicles and wind turbines to enabling advanced medical imaging, the future of rare earths goes far beyond basic supply and demand.